{{AFC submission|d|cv|3=http://www.uobabylon.edu.iq/uobColeges/lecture.aspx?fid=4&depid=1&lcid=72633, https://studylib.net/doc/7710370/local-anesthesia|u=Huckfinne|ns=118|decliner=StraussInTheHouse|declinets=20190404203114|ts=20190403013023}} <!-- Do not remove this line! -->

{{AFC comment|1=Looks promising. &mdash; '''[[User:Stevey7788|Stevey7788]]''' ([[User talk:Stevey7788|talk]]) 11:28, 3 April 2019 (UTC)}}

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{{db-g12|url=http://www.uobabylon.edu.iq/uobColeges/lecture.aspx?fid=4&depid=1&lcid=72633|url2=https://studylib.net/doc/7710370/local-anesthesia|oldid=890763068}}

{{refimprove section|date=February 2014}}
In [[Peru]], the ancient [[Inca mythology#Deities|Incas]] are believed to have used the leaves of the [[coca|coca plant]] as a local anaesthetic in addition to its stimulant properties<ref name="Boca Raton" />. It was also used for slave payment and is thought to play a role in the subsequent destruction of [[Inca Empire#Coca|Incas culture]] when Spaniards realized the effects of chewing the coca leaves and took advantage of it.<ref name="Boca Raton" /> 

The invention of clinical use of local anaesthesia is credited to the Vienna School which included Sigmund Freud (1856-1939), Carl Koller (1857-1944) and Leopold Konigstein (1850-1942).[[Cocaine]] was isolated in 1860 and first used as a local anesthetic in 1884 when the ophthalmologist [[Karl_Koller_(ophthalmologist)|Karl Koller]] was given a small sample by his colleague [[Sigmund_Freud|Sigmund Freud]].  Prior to the advent of local anesthetic cataract surgery needed to be done without any anesthesia due to the side effects of emesis associated with a general anesthetic.  When one of Koller's colleagues noted the well known effect that [[cocaine]] numbs the tongue, Koller immediately recognized its potential as a local anesthetic for use in ophthalmologic surgery, which hitherto had been challenging due to the patient having sensation of his or her eye being operated on.  After observing the absence of a corneal reflex in frogs, Koller and his colleague applied it to their own eyes leading to a eureka moment.  A year later its use in cataract surgery was ubiquitous<ref name="Koller1928" /><ref name="Finucane2017" />.  

[[William_Stewart_Halsted| Halsted]] and Richard Hall, in the United States in 1885 described an intraoral anaesthetic technique of blocking the inferior alveolar nerve and the antero-superior dental nerve using 4% cocaine..<ref name="López-Valverde_2014" /> . Halstead subsequently became addicted to cocaine and only ended his addiction through an inpatient admission and subsequent shift of his addiction to morphine, which enabled him to remain a functional surgeon<ref name="Imber2011" />

It soon became apparent that cocaine had significant the side effects death and addiction. The search for a less toxic and less addictive substitute started with the deduction of the chemical structure of cocaine and then led to the development of the amino-ester local anesthetics [[stovaine]] in 1903 and [[procaine]](trade name novocaine) in 1904. Since then, several synthetic local anesthetic drugs have been developed and put into clinical use.  The first, and perhaps still most common, was [[lidocaine]] (trade name xylocaine) in 1943<ref name="Lofgren1948" />.  It was the first of a new class of local anesthetics, the amino-amides.  It was followed by bupivacaine in 1957, and prilocaine in 1959.  [[Bupivacaine]] was welcomed due to its longer mechanism of action, but about a decade after its introduction was discovered to have rare cardiotoxic side effects especially pronouced in young otherwise healthy patients.  Eventually researchers realized that the cardiotoxicity derived only from the R(+) enantiomer and that the S(-) enantiomer was safe.  Thus, it was approved and marketed as levobupivacaine.  [[Ropivacaine]] has also been developed as a local and regional anesthetic without cardiac risks.  All amino-esters and amino-amides have the risk of systemic overdose and this is treated with a intravenous lipid emulsion as the fat soaks of the fat soluble anesthetic<ref name="Weinberg1998" />.  

Shortly after the first use of cocaine for topical anesthesia, blocks on peripheral nerves were described by Halsted<ref name="Halsted1885" />. Brachial plexus anesthesia by percutaneous injection through axillary and supraclavicular approaches was developed in the early 20th century. The search for the most effective and least traumatic approach for plexus anesthesia and peripheral nerve blocks continues to this day. In recent decades, continuous regional anesthesia using catheters and automatic pumps has evolved as a method of pain therapy.

[[Intravenous_regional_anesthesia|Intravenous regional anesthesia]] was first described by [[August Bier]] in 1908.  Typically it is used for upper extremity surgery of short duration.  A tourniquet is applied and the anesthetic injected intravenously distal to the tourniquet.  This technique is still in use and is remarkably safe when drugs of low systemic toxicity such as prilocaine are used.

[[Neuraxial_blockade|Neuraxial anesthesia]] was first<ref name="Corning1885" /> used in 1885 by [[James_Leonard_Corning|Leonard Corning]] although in hindsight he only performed [[Epidural_administration|epidural]], vice [[Spinal_anaesthesia|spinal anesthesia]].  However neither epidural or spinal anesthesia was introduced into clinical practice until 1899, when August Bier subjected himself to a clinical experiment in which he observed the anesthetic effect of spinal anestheisa, but also the typical side effect of [[Post-dural-puncture_headache|post-punctural headache]]. Within a few years, spinal anesthesia became widely used for surgical anesthesia and was accepted as a safe and effective technique.  [[Rudolph_Matas| Rudolph Matas]] having been the first to publish a case in America<ref name="Matas1889" />. Although atraumatic (noncutting-tip) cannulae and modern drugs are used today, the technique has otherwise changed very little over many decades.  In the early twentieth century spinal anesthesia proved popular for the level of relaxation achieved, which would not be able to be deliberately achieved via [[Neuromuscular-blocking_drug|neuromuscular blockers]] developed in the nineteen forties.  

In the United Kingdom spinal anesthesia, secondary to two otherwise uncomplicated patients having the severe complication of paralysis, experienced a multi-decade hiatus<ref name="Maltby2000" />.  

Epidural anesthesia by a caudal approach had been known in the early 20th century, but a well-defined technique using lumbar injection was not developed until 1921, when [[Fidel Pagés]] published his article "Anestesia Metamérica". This technique was popularized in the 1930s and 1940s by Achille Mario Dogliotti<ref name="Dogliotti1939" />. Curbelo introduced continuous epidural anesthesia in 1949<ref name="Curbelo1949"/>. Hingson popularized continuous caudal anesthesia in obstetrics anesthesia in the 1940s<ref name="Hingson1947"/>. With the advent of thin, flexible catheters, continuous infusion and repeated injections have become possible, making epidural anesthesia still a highly successful technique. Besides its many uses for surgery, epidural anesthesia is particularly popular in obstetrics for the treatment of labor pain.

Regional anesthesia, first popularized by french physician, [[:fr:Victor_Pauchet|Victor Pauchet]], was introduced to America by Sherwood-Dunn in 1920<ref name="Sherwood-Dunn1920" />.  Also responsible for bringing it to America was Pauchet's trainee, Louis Gaston Labat, whom [[Charles_Mayo|Charles Mayo]] had come to America for the purpose of sharing Pauchet's work.  Labat then moved to New York where he was instrumental in establishing the American Society of Regional Anesthesia was founded<ref name="Bacon1995" /> in 1923, which was subsequently disbanded in 1939.  In the early years regional anesthesia was dominated by surgeons and over time the speciality of anesthesia developed such that those who focused on regional anesthesia were professionals in anesthesia.  In 1975 Alon P. Winnie refounded the American Society for Regional Anesthesia and Pain Medicine<ref name="aboutASRA" />. 

In the modern era two major changes to regional and local anesthesia have occurred.  First in the 1970s it became somewhat common to electrically stimulate the nerve to verify via motor response that the needle was in the correct place.  Then in the 1980s and 1990s ultrasound became common and anesthesiologists adopted the practice of visualizing the nerve to confirm needle placement.   

== References ==
{{Reflist|2|refs=
<ref name="Koller1928">{{cite journal |last1=Koller |first1=C  |date=1928 |title=Historical notes on the beginning of local anesthesia |url= |journal=Journal of the American Medical Association |volume=90 |issue= |pages=1742-1743 |doi= |access-date= }}</ref>

<ref name="Boca Raton">{{cite news|title=Cocaine's use: From the Incas to the U.S.|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1291&dat=19850404&id=0B1UAAAAIBAJ&sjid=mIwDAAAAIBAJ&pg=6387,881236|access-date=2 February 2014|newspaper=Boca Raton News|date=4 April 1985}}</ref>

<ref name="Finucane2017">{{cite book |last=Finucane |first=B |date=2017 |title=Complications of Regional Anesthesia |publisher=Springer |chapter=1|page=3-13 |isbn=978-3-319-49384-8|doi=10.1007/978-3-319-49386-}}</ref>

<ref name="López-Valverde_2014">{{cite journal | vauthors = López-Valverde A, de Vicente J, Martínez-Domínguez L, de Diego RG | title = Local anaesthesia through the action of cocaine, the oral mucosa and the Vienna group | journal = British Dental Journal | volume = 217 | issue = 1 | pages = 41–3 | date = July 2014 | pmid = 25012333 | doi = 10.1038/sj.bdj.2014.546 }}</ref>

<ref name="Lofgren1948">{{cite journal | |last1=[[Nils_Löfgren|Löfgren]] |first1=N |last2=Lundquist |first2=B | title = Studies on local anesthetics | journal = Svenska Kem. Todskr | volume = 58 |  pages = 206 | date = 1948 }}</ref>

<ref name="Imber2011">{{cite book |last=Imber |first=G |date=2011 |title=Genius on the Edge: The Bizarre Double Life of Dr. William Stewart Halsted'|publisher=Kaplan Publishing |isbn=9781607148586}}</ref>

<ref name="aboutASRA">{{cite web |url=https://www.asra.com/about|title=About American Society of Regional Anesthesia and Pain Medicine |author=<!--Not stated--> |access-date=1 April 2019}}</ref>

<ref name="Weinberg1998">{{cite journal |last1=Weinberg |first1=G |last2=VadeBoncouer |first2=T |last3=Ramaraju |first3=G |last4=Garcia-Amaro |first4=M |last5=Cwik |first5=M  |date=1998 |title=Pretreatment or resuscitation with a lipid infusion shifts the dose-response to bupivacaine-induced asystole in rats |url= |journal=Anesthesiology: The Journal of the American Society of Anesthesiologists |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=1071-1075 |pmid=9579517|doi= |access-date= }}</ref>

<ref name="Halsted1885">{{cite journal |last1=Halsted |first1=W | title = Practical comments on the use and abuse of cocaine, suggested by its use in more than 1000 minor surgical operations | journal = New York Medical Journal | volume = 42 | pages = 294-295 | date = 1885}}</ref>

<ref name="Corning1885">{{cite journal |last1=Corning |first1=J | title = Spinal anesthesia and local medication of the cord | journal = New York Medical Journal | volume = 42 | pages = 483-435 | date = 1885}}</ref>

<ref name="Matas1889">{{cite journal |last1=Matas |first1=R | title = Report on successful spinal anesthesia | journal = Journal of the American Medical Association | volume = 33 | pages = 1659 | date = 1889}}</ref>

<ref name="Sherwood-Dunn1920">{{cite book |last=Sherwood-Dunn |first=B |date=1920 |title=Regional anaesthesia |publisher=FA Davis |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/Regional_Anesthesia/hO00AQAAMAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=0}}</ref>

<ref name="Bacon1995">{{cite journal |last1=Bacon |first1=D |last2=Reddy |first2=V |last3=Murphy |first3=O  |date=1995 |title=Regional anesthesia and chronic pain management in the 1920s and 1930s: The influence of the American Society of Regional Anesthesia |journal=Regional Anesthesia Pain Medicine |volume=20 |issue=3 |pages=185-192 |pmid=7547653 }}</ref>

<ref name="Dogliotti1939">{{cite book |last=Dogliotti |first=A |date=1939 |title=Anesthesia: narcosis, local, regional, spinal |publisher=S.B. Debour |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H63RAAAAMAAJ&q=Anesthesia:+narcosis,+local,+regional,+spinal&dq=Anesthesia:+narcosis,+local,+regional,+spinal&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj42aKj2rLhAhXK_J4KHbRkDqAQ6AEwAHoECAIQAg}}</ref>

<ref name="Curbelo1949">{{cite journal |last1=Curbelo |first1=M | title = RContinuous peridural segmental anesthesia by means of a ureteral catheter | journal = Anesthesia and Analgesia | volume = 28 | pages = 13-23 | date = 1949}}</ref>

<ref name="Hingson1947">{{cite journal |last1=Hingson |first1=R | title = Continuous caudal analgesia in obstetrics, surgery and therapeutics | journal = Current Research in Anesthesia and Analgesia | volume = 26 | pages = 238-247 | date = 1947}}</ref>

<ref name="Maltby2000">{{cite journal |last1=Maltby |first1=J |last2=Hutter |first2=C |last3=Clayton |first3=K | title = British journal of anaesthesia | journal = British journal of anaesthesia| volume = 84 |issue=1 | pages = 121-126 | date = 2000}}</ref>

}}